Antimicrobial-resistant pathogens on the plate: A semi-quantitative hygiene risk evaluation of raw beef consumption in Ethiopia within a One Health context

Consumption of raw beef poses a significant public health risk due to high levels of contamination with enteric pathogens and widespread antimicrobial resistance. In this study, 45.2% of meat samples were contaminated, predominantly with E. coli (including 26.8% pathogenic O157:H7), followed by Shigella and Salmonella. Restaurant practices further increased risk, with no heat treatment applied and 76% demonstrating poor hygiene. Critically, all isolates showed resistance to amoxicillin, and many exhibited multidrug resistance, limiting treatment options, although susceptibility to chloramphenicol remained. Overall, the combination of high exposure risk and reduced antibiotic effectiveness results in a high estimated health risk for consumers, underscoring the need for improved hygiene standards, public awareness, and AMR mitigation strategies.