Nanomedicines in the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) remains a major global threat due to resistance to standard antibiotics and limited therapeutic options. This review outlines why conventional agents—such as β-lactams, glycopeptides, and last-line drugs—are increasingly ineffective and argues for fundamentally new approaches. It highlights five complementary nanotechnology strategies: (1) inorganic and metallic nanoparticles that disrupt biofilms, generate reactive oxygen species, or apply localized heat; (2) mesoporous and graphene-based platforms that can be functionalized to break down biofilm matrices and re-sensitize dormant bacteria; (3) biomimetic and stimuli-responsive systems that improve targeting and controlled drug release in MRSA-specific environments; (4) hybrid constructs combining antibiotics, photothermal therapy, or gene-editing tools to achieve synergy and limit resistance development; and (5) advanced delivery systems, such as in situ–forming hydrogels, that sustain high local drug levels in hard-to-treat infections. The review concludes by discussing translational hurdles—scalability, safety, AI-assisted design, and regulatory pathways—positioning nanotechnology as a shift toward precision, multi-modal therapies that could make MRSA a more manageable clinical target.