Gender inequality and antibiotic consumption: analysis of pharmaceutical sales data from 70 countries, 2000–22

This country-level observational study (70 countries, 2000–2022) examined how gender equality relates to antibiotic consumption using data from IQVIA MIDAS®. Antibiotic use varied widely (average 19.1 DDDs/1,000 people/day). Higher female educational attainment and greater female-to-male labour force participation were consistently associated with lower antibiotic consumption. A higher proportion of women in the population showed a small association with higher consumption, while women’s representation in parliament had no significant effect. Results were robust across model specifications, income groups, and time periods. Overall, the findings suggest that gender inequalities shape antibiotic use and support investing in gender-responsive, community-based AMR strategies.